Acceptable Encryption Policy

Acceptable Encryption polityIntroductionThe purpose of this insurance is to come forth with the general principles that limit the use of encryption to those algorithms that have received hefty public review and have been proven to work effectively.ScopeThis policy applies to all Staysure.co.uk employees and affiliates.PolicyIt is strongly recommended to use the Advanced Encryption stock(a) (AES) for symmetric encryption.It is strongly recommended to use the RSA and unsubdivided Curve Cryptography (ECC) algorithms for unsymmetrical encryption.In general, Staysure company adheres to the NIST Policy on Hash Functions.Diffie-Hellman, IKE, or Elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) Key ex tilts must(prenominal)(prenominal) be used.End points must be authenticated in the beginning exchanging the key or derivation of session keys. worldly concern keys used to establish trust must be authenticated earlier to use.All servers and activity programs using SSL or TLS must have the certifi cates signed by a known, trusted provider.Cryptographic keys must be generated and stored in a secure manner that prevents loss, theft, or agree.This Policy must be corroborate and accepted by the Infosec team up through different methods. each employee set up to have violeted this policy give be dealt with in union to Staysure disciplinary procedures. This whitethorn lead to a final result of employment for employees and termination of squeeze for service providers.Database Credentials Coding PolicyIntroductionFor an application to unify to the internal database it is necessary to authorize through the database authentication credential. But awry(p) use, storage and transmission of much(prenominal) certificate will lead to compromise of very sensitive data.ScopeThis policy is for all system implementer and package engineers who work on coding applications that will access database server on the Staysure Network.PolicyTo maintain the security of Staysures internal dat abases, access by bundle programs must be granted only after authentication with certificate.The credentials used for this authentication must not reside in the main, implementation body of the program.Database credentials must not be stored in a location that can be accessed through a web server.Database credentials may be stored as part of an authentication server (i.e., an entitlement directory), such as an LDAP server used for user authenticationDatabase credentials may not reside in the documents tree of a web server. countersigns or pass phrases used to access a database must adhere to the Password Policy.Every program must have unique database credentials. Sharing of credentials between programs is not allowed.Developer groups must have a process in place to ensure that database passwords are controlled and changed in accordance with the Password PolicyThis Policy must be verified and accepted by the Infosec team through different methods.Any employee found to have violet ed this policy will be dealt with in accordance to Staysure disciplinary procedures. This may lead to a termination of employment for employees and termination of contract for service providers.Any program code or application that violates this policy must be remediated deep down a 90 day period meshing act security department PolicyIntroductionThe largest portion of attack vectors outside the malware is accounted by the Web applications. It is necessary that any web application prior to production deployment should be assessed for vulnerabilities.ScopeThis policy is for assessments of all web applications for maintaining the security posture, compliance, risk management, and change control of technologies in use at Staysure.co.ukPolicyNew Application Releasewill be subject to a sound assessment prior to unload into the live environment.Third Party Web Applicationwill be subject to full assessment after which it will be bound to policy requirements. fix Releaseswill be subject to an appropriate assessment level based on the risk of the changes to the application functionality and architecture.Any high risk issue must be fixed immediately or other mitigation strategies must be put in place to limit exposure before deployment.A full assessment is comprised of tests for all known web application vulnerabilities using both automated and manual tools based on the OWASP examination GuideA quick assessment will consist of a (typically) automated scan of an application for the OWASP Top Ten web application security risks at a minimum.A targeted assessment is performed to verify pic remediation changes or new application functionality.This Policy must be verified and accepted by the Infosec team through different methods.Any employee found to have violeted this policy will be dealt with in accordance to Staysure disciplinary procedures. This may lead to a termination of employment for employees and termination of contract for service providers.

Security for Insider Attacks in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

surety for Insider Attacks in vigorous Ad Hoc Net constructsAbstract smooth ad hoc cyberspaces ar entreaty of piano tuner sprightly clients forming a flying entanglement without the aid of whatever established nucleotide. Security issues ar much(prenominal) paramount in much(prenominal) interlockings even more so than in wired profits. Despite the innovation of well- cognise credentials chemical mechanisms, additional vulnerabilities and features clever to this crude inter kick the bucketing paradigm energy render the traditional solutions inapplicable. In detail these vanes atomic number 18 extremely at a lower place curse to insider set ons especi ein truthy bundle die hard invades. It is very strong to identify much(prenominal)(prenominal) fervors be engender they comes in the social class of brush ups in fluent ad hoc net civilizes in which the aggressor lymph glands set outs the die of the earnings. In this explore work w e reserve proposed a two folded flack, to divulge and then to keep obscure much(prenominal) leaf pommels which become the part of the meshing to ca custom megabucks drib polish ups. First speak to exit detect the mis air of bosss and lead let on the malevolent activity in network, and then upon identification of guests misbehavior in network different approach will isolate the malevolent invitee from network. OMNET++ simulator is utilise to simulate and depose the proposed solution. Experimental gos shows that E-SAODV (Enhanced potent Ad hoc On Demand duration stationter conferences conferences protocol) performs much mitigate than conventional SAODV ( true(p) Ad hoc On Demand standoffishness broadcaster Protocol)Chapter 1IntroductionOver masturbate wide awake Ad-hoc networks be a impertinentborn paradigm of radiocommunication communication for spry hosts. As at that array is no frigid substructure much(prenominal) as base stations fo r peregrine switching. Nodes within to severally(prenominal) one former(a)s range slip away directly via wireless tie in plot of ground those which atomic number 18 far apart rely on elucidatewise lymph lymph invitees to transmit centers. Node mobility causes frequent budges in topology. The wireless nature of communication and lack of all protective cover system infrastructure raises several auspices problems. The succeeding(a) flowchart depicts the working of any ecumenic ad-hoc network.Features of expeditious Ad hoc Networks found on the characteristics, fluid Ad hoc Networks has sideline chief(prenominal) features.Because of the limited energy supply for the wireless thickenings and the mobility of the guests, the wireless binds amidst agile clients in the Ad hoc Network be non consistent for the communication participants. referable to the continuous motion of guests, the topology of the meandering(a) ad hoc network changes constantly, th e knobs lot continuously move into and out of the receiving set range of the opposite nodes in the ad hoc network, and the routing certifyation will be ever-changing completely the beat because of the movement of the nodes.Lack of incorporation of earnest features in statically configured wireless routing protocol non meant for Ad hoc milieus. Because the topology of the Ad hoc Networks is changing constantly, it is readed for each pair of adjacent nodes to hold back in the routing issue so as to go on more or lesswhat class of potential struggles that try to quarter use of vulnerabilities in the statically configured routing protocol. sprightly Ad hoc Network Routing ProtocolsRouting in Mobile Ad hoc Networks faces additional challenges when compared to routing in traditional wired networks with fixed infrastructure. There are several well-known protocols that have been detailally create to cope with the limitations imposed by Ad hoc networking environments. T he problem of routing in such environments is aggravated by limiting factors such as rapidly changing topologies, full(prenominal) power consumption, low bandwidth and high error rates 1. close of the real routing protocols follow two several(predicate) send off approaches to confront the integral characteristics of Ad hoc networks namely Pro agile Routing Protocols, responsive Routing Protocols.Proactive Routing ProtocolsProactive ad hoc routing protocols primary(prenominal)tain at all clock routing entropy regarding the connectivity of any node to all some other nodes that participate in the network. These protocols are too known as Table-driven Ad hoc Routing Protocols. These protocols allow any node to have a clear and consistent view of the network topology by propagating semiweekly updates 1. Therefore, all nodes are able to lay down immediate decisions regarding the earliering of a specific share. Two main protocols that affect into the category of proactiv e routing protocols are Destination- epochd Distance- sender (DSDV) protocol 2 and the Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) protocol 3. excited Routing ProtocolsAn transfernative approach to the one followed by Proactive Routing Protocols withal known as witnesser-initiated on-demand routing, is Reactive Routing Protocols. According to this approach a passageway is created only when the source node requires one to a specific finish. A highway is acquired by the groundwork of a way stripping turn by the source node. The training mail boats transmitted era a driveway discovery is in movement are weakened and are displace when the running is established. An established alley is unbroken up(p) as long as it is inevitable done a lane sustentation procedure. The Ad hoc On-demand Distance transmitter (AODV) routing protocol 4, Temporally legitimate Routing Algorithm (TORA) 5 and the Dynamic reservoir Routing protocol 6 are guinea pigs of this category of protocol s.Security issues in Mobile Ad hoc Routing Protocols both routing protocol essential enclose an essential set of protection mechanisms. These are mechanisms that help prevent, detect, and respond to warranter fights. We derriere classify these major gage department inclinations into tail fin main categories, which defy to be calculateed in give to maintain a authoritative and restore ad-hoc network environment.ConfidentialityConfidentiality is the protection of any info from being open(a) to unintended entities. In ad-hoc networks this is more difficult to contact because intermediates nodes receive the packets for other recipients, so they mickle easily eaves trim down the information being passd. handinessAvailability means that a node should maintain its ability to deliver all the designed services irrespective of the security state of it . This security criterion is challenged mainly during the denial-of-service advances, in which all the nodes in the netw ork bath be the attack target and in that locationfore some selfish nodes even off some of the network services unavailable, such as the routing protocol or the signalise management service. hallmarkAuthentication assures that an entity of concern or the offset of a communication is what it claims to be or from. Without which an attacker would impersonate a node, thus gaining unauthorized glide path to option and sensitive information and in use(p) with mathematical feat of other nodes. faithfulness righteousness guarantees the personal identity of the hearts when they are transmitted. Integrity hind end be compromised through with(predicate) leering and accidental altering. A communicate clear be dropped, replayed or rewrite by an adversary with catty remnant, which is regarded as vindictive altering while if the pith is lost or its content is changed collectable to some failures, which may be transmission errors or weighed downware errors such as trick y disk failure, then it is categorise as accidental altering.Non-RepudiationNon-repudiation ensures that send and receiving parties behind neer deny their displace or receiving the message.In baseball club to achieve the overall goal of Mobile Ad hoc Network security, above five mechanisms essential be implement in any ad-hoc networks so as to ensure the security of the transmissions along that network.Secure Ad hoc RoutingAs controverted earlier over the past decade, umpteen Ad hoc routing protocols have been proposed in belles-lettres. Among them the just about widely employ are AODV (Ad hoc On Demand Distance sender) 4 and DSR (Dynamic Source Routing) 2 which comes in the category of re-active routing protocols of Ad hoc Networks. All of these protocols have been studied extensively. only as there were no security believeations in the original design of these protocols, these protocols remain under threat from the attackers. The main assumption of these protocols w as that all take part nodes do so in good faith and without cattyly disrupting the operation of the protocol. However the foundation of venomed entities faeces not be ignore in the systems especially the environment apply for Ad hoc Networks. To overcome the security vulnerabilities in existing routing protocols, legion(predicate) security enhancements in these protocols have been proposed that unfortunately these hard Ad hoc Routing Protocols were either designed for a extra protocol or to comprehend a specific problem operation of the protocol. For example SAODV (Secure Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector Protocol) 7 was proposed to hard AODV (Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector) protocol, Ariadne 10 was proposed to protect DSR (Dynamic Source Routing) protocol, ARAN 7 was proposed to protect the Ad hoc Routing in general while SEAD 8 was proposed to protect the DSDV (Destination Sequence Distance Vector Routing) protocol. The purpose of SAR 9 (Security aware Routing) was also to protect the Routing in Ad hoc Networks. line definitionThus current studies on MANETs pose some(prenominal) thought-provoking research areas including MANETs security. Since MANETs are make up entirely of wireless mobile nodes, they are inherently more susceptible to security threats compared to fixed networks 11. entree to wireless contact lens is nigh impossible to find thus ill security events such as eavesdropping, spoofing and denial of service attacks are more easily accomplished. These security risks must be reduced to an acceptable train while maintaining an acceptable font of Service and network performance. However, in hunting lodge to work properly, the routing protocols in MANETs need entrust working environments, which are not always available. There may be situations in which the environment may be adversarial. For example some nodes may be selfish, malevolent, or compromised by attackers. Most of the work do regarding network security in MANET s c immersiones on preventing attackers from entering the network through true(p) recognize distri neverthelession and adept neighbor discovery 10,12. save these abstracts become ineffective when the bitchy nodes have entered the network, or some nodes in the network have been compromised. Therefore, threats from compromised nodes inside the network are far more dangerous than the attacks from outside the network. Since these attacks are initiated from inside the network by the take part malicious nodes which behave well onwards they are compromised, it is very hard to detect these attacks.Keeping in view the security threats faced by MANETs we focus on software system falling Attack which is a respectable threat to Mobile Ad hoc Networks. Although more research efforts have been piece on untroubled routing protocols but the attacks worry packet dropping is not adequately come up toed. We study the packet dropping attack in which a malicious node intentionally drops the packets they current. inappropriate all previous researches which endeavour to tolerate Packet move Attacks, our work affords the first effort to detect the malicious activity and then name the malicious or compromised nodes in the network.Research ObjectiveThe fundamental objective lens of this research is to discuss the security attacks faced by Mobile Ad hoc Networks specially insider attacks and to review the security in existing routing protocols especially secure routing protocols in MANETs. We particularly focus on packet dropping attack which is a serious threat to Mobile Ad hoc Networks. A falsehood security enhancement shunning to channelize packet dropping attack has been proposed.Thesis OrganizationChapter 2 hand overs a brief introduction of security threats faced by Mobile Ad hoc Networks and secure routing to palm these attacks. Chapter 3 discusses about the related work and flaws identified in the related work. Chapter 4 presents the possible solutio ns to address the packet dropping attack in Mobile Ad hoc Networks. Chapter 5 includes the effectuation of proposed mechanisms and Results of the proposed mechanism and the thesis is concluded in Chapter 6.Chapter 2Security Threats and Secure Ad hoc Routing ProtocolsIntroductionThis chapter includes the threats and eccentrics of attacks faced by Mobile Ad hoc Networks. Secure Ad hoc routing protocols akin SAODV 7 (Secure Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector), SAR 16 (Security assured Routing), and ARAN 9 ( attestd Routing for Ad hoc Networks) and so onand how these protocols are nevertheless open to attacks, are discussed in this chapter.Types of attacks in MANETsThere are numerous kinds of attacks in the mobile ad hoc networks, about all of which bottom of the inning be class into two theatrical roles, outer Attacks and Insider Attacks. orthogonal AttacksExternal Attacks are those attacks, in which the attacker aims to cause congestion, propagate parry routing informatio n or extend to nodes from providing services. External attacks are sympathetic to the average attacks in the traditional wired networks such that the adversary is in the propinquity but not a trusted node in the network, therefore, this sign of attack atomic number 50 be prevented and discover by the security methods such as stylemark or firewall, which are relatively conventional security solutions.Internal or Insider AttacksDue to the invading nature and open network media in the mobile ad hoc network, infixed also known as insider attacks are more dangerous than the extraneous attacks because the compromised or malicious nodes are originally the decreeed users of the Ad hoc network, they raise easily pass the authentication and get protection from the security mechanisms. As a result, the adversaries potty make use of them to gain normal nettle to the services that should only be available to the authorized users in the network, and they hobo use the legal identity provided by the compromised nodes to conceal their malicious behaviors. Therefore, more attention should be compensable to the native attacks initiated by the malicious insider nodes when we consider the security issues in the mobile ad hoc networks.Internal or insider nodes when become part of the network can misuse the network in the undermentioned waysPacket DroppingA malicious node can attack at its aim or at dismay take aims. in particular in the circumstance of Packet Dropping Attack, within a trust take, a malicious node or any other node which aims at deliver its resources or intentionally launching a attack can successfully drop packets without being noticed and can get services from other nodes for transport its own packets.Node IsolationAn internal malicious node can prevent nodes from communicating with any other node. thoroughfare DisruptionA malicious node can pique down an existing roadway or prevent a new travel guidebook from being established.Route I nvasionAn inside attacker adds itself between two endpoints of a communication channel.Attacks based on modificationA very simplest way for a malicious node to disturb the operations of an ad-hoc network is to perform an attack based on modification. The only delegate the malicious or compromised node inevitably to perform is to announce better courses than the ones presently existing. This kind of attack is based on the modification of the careful respect for a pathway or by altering control message vault of heavens.There are various ways to perform this type of attacks some of them are discussed below modify the Hop CountThis attack is more specific to the AODV 4 protocol wherein the optimal path is chosen by the skip look metric. A malicious node can disturb the network by announcing the smallest skips tally value to reach the compromised node. In general, an attacker would use a value zero to ensure to the smallest hop run.Changing the Route Sequence NumberWhen a n ode decides the optimal path to take through a network, the node always relies on a metric of values, such as hop count delays etc. The smaller that value, the more optimum the path. Hence, a simple way to attack a network is to change this value with a smaller bet than the last better value.Altering Routing InformationThis type of attack leads network toward Denial of Service (DoS) attack. For example in a situation where a node M wants to communicate with node S. At node M the routing path in the foreland would be M-N-O-P-Q-R-S. If N is a compromised node, it can alter this routing detail to M-N-O-P. precisely since there exists no direct passageway from O to P, P will drop the packet. Thus, A will never be able to access any service from P. This situation leads the network towards a DoS attack. enactment AttacksImpersonation is also known as spoofing. In this type of attack the malicious node hides its IP address or MAC address and uses the addresses of other nodes present i n the network. Since reliable ad-hoc routing protocols like AODV 4 and DSR 6 do not authenticate source IP address. By bringing this situation a malicious node can launch var. of attacks exploitation spoofing. For example in a situation where an attacker creates loops in the network to isolate a node from the remainder of the network, the attacker needs to spoof the IP address of the node he wants to isolate from the network and then announce new dispatch to the others nodes. By doing this, he can easily modify the network topology as he wants. finesse AttacksFabrication attacks can be classified into three main categories. maculation is very difficult in all of these three bailiwicks.Routing table tipsinessRouting protocols maintain tables which hold information regarding tracks of the network. In routing table toxicanting attacks the malicious nodes generate and send fictive signaling traffic, or modify legitimate messages from other nodes, in pose to create false entr ies in the tables of the take part nodes. For example, an attacker can send routing updates that do not correspond to existing changes in the topology of the ad hoc network. Routing table poisoning attacks can result in selection of non-optimal way of lifes, understructure of routing loops and bottlenecks.Route Cache PoisoningThis type of attack falls in the category of passive attacks that can go through especially in DSR 6 due to the promiscuous mode of updating routing tables. This type of situation arises when information stored in routing tables is deleted, altered or injected with false information. A node overhearing any packet may add the routing information contained in that packets header to its own route amass, even if that node is not on the path from source to speech. The photo of this system is that an attacker could easily exploit this method of learning routes and poison route caches by broadcast a message with a spoofed IP address to other nodes. When they rec eive this message, the nodes would add this new route to their cache and would now communicate using the route to reach the malicious node. rote learning Error Messages fabricationThis attack is very common in AODV 4 and DSR 6, because when nodes move these two protocols use path maintenance to recover the optimum path. The failing of this architecture is that whenever a node moves, the side by side(predicate) node sends an error message to the other nodes so as to inform them that a route is no longer accessible. If an attacker can cause a DoS attack by spoofing any node and sending error messages to the all other nodes. As a result malicious node can separate any node quite easily.EavesdroppingEavesdropping is another(prenominal) kind of attack that commonly happens in the mobile ad hoc networks. The goal of eavesdropping is to obtain some occult information that should be kept sequestered during the communication. This information may include the location, popular key, priv ate key or even passwords of the nodes. Because such info are very important to the security state of the nodes, they should be kept away from the unauthorized access.Secure Ad hoc Routing ProtocolsMany solutions have been proposed for secure routing in ad hoc networks, in distinguish to offer protection against the attacks discussed earlier. These proposed solutions are either completely new complete protocols, or in some cases incorporations of security mechanisms into existing ones (like DSR 6 and AODV 4).In roam to analyze the proposed solutions and how they are salve vulnerable to attacks we classified them into two main categories based on unsymmetric steganography and symmetric cryptography.Asymmetric cryptological SolutionProtocols that use irregular cryptography to secure routing in mobile ad hoc networks require the human beings of a universally trusted tierce troupe. This trusted third caller can be either online or offline. The trusted third party issues pr esents that bind a nodes normal key with a nodes persistent identifier. evidence Routing for Ad hoc Networks ARAN 9 falls in this category of secure Ad hoc routing protocols many of the other protocols presented in other categories that use lopsided cryptography hire in a similar appearance and have similar destinys.Authenticated Routing for Ad hoc Networks ARANThe Authenticated Routing for Ad hoc Networks (ARAN) proposed in 9 is a standalone solution for secure routing in ad hoc networking environments. ARAN use digital corroborations and can successfully operate in the managed open scenario where no infrastructure is pre-deployed. The basic mechanism used in ARAN is corroboration that is achieved through the existence of a trusted certification authority (CA). All nodes are so-called to know their public key from the certification authority and also the public key of server. Prior to entering into the network, each node has to apply for a certificate that is signed by th e certificate server. ARAN accomplishes the discovery of routes by a broadcast message from source node which is replied in a unicast manner. This route discovery of the ARAN protocol begins with a node broadcasting to its neighbors a route discovery packet (RDP). The RDP includes the certificate of the initiating node, a nonce, a cadencestamp and the address of the endpoint node. Furthermore, the initiating node signs the RDP. Each node validates the signature with the certificate, updates its routing table with the neighbor from which it received the RDP, signs it, and forwards it to its neighbors after removing the certificate and the signature of the previous node (but not the initiators signature and certificate). The signature prevents malicious nodes from injecting arbitrary route discovery packets that alter routes or form loops 13. The destination node eventually receives the RDP and replies with a solvent packet (REP). The REP contains the address of the source node, th e destinations certificate, a nonce, and the associated timestamp. The destination node signs the REP forrader communicate it. The REP is forwarded back to the initiating node by a process similar to the one described for the route discovery, extract that the REP is unicasted along the face-lift path. The source node is able to depone that the destination node sent the REP by checking the nonce and the signature. direct 2 illustrates the process of route discovery in ARAN. All messages are authenticated at each hop from source to destination as well as on the reverse path. Due to heavy tally tough with the certificates, ARAN is vulnerable to many attacks e.g. country attacks. In situation when there are no malicious nodes in the network the load involved in the routing process lastingness the legitimate nodes to drop the packets in stray to save their resources.Symmetric cryptograph SolutionsSymmetric cryptographic solutions rely merely on symmetric cryptography to secu re the fly the coop of routing in wireless ad hoc networks. The mechanisms utilized is haschischish give ways and haschisch chains. A one-way hasheesheesheesh engage is a function that takes an input of arbitrary length and returns an getup of fixed length 14. As hash functions are especially light when compared to other symmetric and asymmetric cryptographic operations, they have been extensively used in the context of securing ad hoc routing.Secure Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector Protocol (SAODV)The Secure Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector (SAODV) 7 addresses the problem of securing a MANET network. SAODV is an cite of AODV4 routing protocol that can be used to protect the route discovery mechanism by providing security features like authentication, integrity and non-repudiation. It uses digital signatures to authenticate the non-mutable regions of the message, and hash chains to secure the hop count information (the only mutable subject area in message) in both RREQ and RREP messages. The SAODV scheme is based on the assumption that each node possesses certified public keys of all network nodes . In order to facilitate the transmission of the information required for the security mechanisms, SAODV defines extensions to the standard AODV message format. These SAODV extensions consist of the following field. The hash function field identifies the one-way hash function that is used. The field goop hop count is a proceeds that specifies the maximum number of nodes a packet is allowed to go through. The top hash field is the result of the covering of the hash function max hop count times to a randomly generated number, and finally the field hash is this random number.When a node transmits a route request or a route respond AODV packet it sets the max hop count field equal to the time to live (TTL) field from the IP header, generates a random number and sets the hash field equal to it, and applies the hash function specified by the same field ma x hop count times to the random number, storing the calculate result to the top hash field. Moreover, the node digitally signs all fields of the message, except the hop count field from the AODV header and the hash field from the SAODV extension header. An intermediate node that receives a route request or a route reply must verify the integrity of the message and the hop count AODV 4 field. The integrity requirement is accomplished by corroborative the digital signature. The hop count field is verified by analyze the result of the application of the hash function max hop count minus hop count times to the hash field with the value of the top hash field. Before the packet is re-broadcasted by the intermediate node the value of the hash field is replaced by the result of the calculation of the one-way hash of the field itself in order to account for the new hop. In SAODV route error messages (RERR) that are generated by nodes that inform their neighbors that they are not going to be able to route messages to specific destinations are secured using digital signatures. A node that generates or forwards a route error message cryptographically signs the consentaneous message, except the destination epoch numbers.Although SAODV provides reasonable security to MANETs routing, but it is still vulnerable to distance postiche attack 15 in which the forwarding node fails to increment the route metric because in SAODV there is no enforcement to do so. Further there is no method to detect the malicious nodes and body politic attacks because in SAODV it is assumed that DOS attacks are restricted to physical layer, but this assumption failed when colluding malicious nodes drop packets during the route discovery process.Security Aware Routing (SAR)SAR 16 (Security Aware Routing) is an extension to existing on demand routing protocols and used where nodes are grouped on the ass of trust level. In SAR each node has different security level which assigns them different t rust levels. Two nodes can only communicate with each other if they have equal or greater trust values. If a node has lower security level it simply discards the packet. In case there is no node in the network with the desired level then communication cannot take place or we can affirm that, that particular packet cant be forwarded unless its security level is lowered. By exploiting this condition a malicious node can attack at its level or at lower levels. Particularly in the context of Packet Dropping Attack, within a trust level, a malicious node or any other node which aims at saving its resources or intentionally launching a attack can successfully drop packets without being noticed and can get services from other nodes for forwarding its own packets. SAR also fails in the situations of secure routing in general because it only focuses on the situations in which plastered groups are assumed to be trustworthy.ConclusionFrom the above discussion, we observe that all Secure Ad h oc routing protocols are still vulnerable to many attacks. Although proposed techniques provide security against external attacks, insider attacks are still an open issue in MANETs.Chapter 3Literature review articleIntroductionMany solutions have been proposed to prevent selfishness in MANETs. The main goal of all the schemes proposed in the literature is to make decisions regarding trustworthy entities and to encourage behavior that leads to increasing trust. In this section we discuss some of the solutions presented in the literature in order to detect the malicious nodes in the network in context of packet dropping attack.guard dog and PathraterIn 17 Marti el al, proposed a mechanism called as watchdog and pathrater on DSR6 to detect the misbehavior of nodes in MANETs. Nodes in this scheme operate in a promiscuous mode. The watchdog monitors one hop neighbor by overhearing the medium to check whether the side by side(p) neighbor forwards the packet or not. It also maintains a b uffer of recently sent packets. If a info packet remains in the buffer too long, the watchdog declares the side by side(p) hop neighbor to be misbehaving. Every node that participates in the ad hoc network employs the watchdog functionality in order to verify that its neighbors correctly forward packets. When a node transmits a packet to the side by side(p) node in the path, it tries to promiscuously listen if the next node will also transmit it. Furthermore, if there is no link encryption utilized in the network, the earreach node can also verify that the next node did not modify the packet before transmitting it . The watchdog of a node maintains copies of recently forwarded packets and compares them with the packet transmissions overheard by the neighboring nodes. Positive comparisons result in the deletion of the buffered packet and the sacking of the related memory. If a node that was supposed to forward a packet fails to do so within a authorized timeout period, the watchd og of an overhearing node increments a failure rating for the specific node. This effectively means that every node in the ad hoc network maintains a rating assessing the dependableness of every other node that it can overhear packet transmissions from. A node is identified as misbehaving when the failure rating exceeds a certain threshold bandwidth. The source node of the route that contains the offending node is notified by a message send by the identifying watchdog. As the authors of the scheme note, the main problem with this approach is its vulnerability to blackjack attacks. The pathrater selects the path with the highest metric when there are multiple paths for the same destination node. The algorithm followed by the pathrater mechanism initially assigns a rating of 1.0 to itself and 0.5 to each node that it knows through the route discovery function. The nodes that participate on the active paths have their ratings increased by 0.01 at periodic intervals of 200 millisecond s to a maximum rating of 0.8. A rating is decremented by 0.05 when a link breakage isSecurity for Insider Attacks in Mobile Ad Hoc NetworksSecurity for Insider Attacks in Mobile Ad Hoc NetworksAbstractMobile ad hoc networks are collection of wireless mobile nodes forming a temporary network without the aid of any established infrastructure. Security issues are more paramount in such networks even more so than in wired networks. Despite the existence of well-known security mechanisms, additional vulnerabilities and features pertinent to this new networking paradigm might render the traditional solutions inapplicable. In particular these networks are extremely under threat to insider attacks especially packet dropping attacks. It is very difficult to detect such attacks because they comes in the category of attacks in mobile ad hoc networks in which the attacker nodes becomes the part of the network. In this research work we have proposed a two folded approach, to detect and then to i solate such nodes which become the part of the network to cause packet dropping attacks. First approach will detect the misbehavior of nodes and will identify the malicious activity in network, and then upon identification of nodes misbehavior in network other approach will isolate the malicious node from network. OMNET++ simulator is used to simulate and verify the proposed solution. Experimental results shows that E-SAODV (Enhanced Secure Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector protocol) performs much better than conventional SAODV (Secure Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector Protocol)Chapter 1IntroductionOverviewMobile Ad-hoc networks are a new paradigm of wireless communication for mobile hosts. As there is no fixed infrastructure such as base stations for mobile switching. Nodes within each others range communicate directly via wireless links while those which are far apart rely on other nodes to transmit messages. Node mobility causes frequent changes in topology. The wireless nature of communication and lack of any security infrastructure raises several security problems. The following flowchart depicts the working of any general ad-hoc network.Features of Mobile Ad hoc NetworksBased on the characteristics, Mobile Ad hoc Networks has following main features.Because of the limited energy supply for the wireless nodes and the mobility of the nodes, the wireless links between mobile nodes in the Ad hoc Network are not consistent for the communication participants.Due to the continuous motion of nodes, the topology of the mobile ad hoc network changes constantly, the nodes can continuously move into and out of the radio range of the other nodes in the ad hoc network, and the routing information will be changing all the time because of the movement of the nodes.Lack of incorporation of security features in statically configured wireless routing protocol not meant for Ad hoc environments. Because the topology of the Ad hoc Networks is changing constantly, it is necessar y for each pair of adjacent nodes to incorporate in the routing issue so as to prevent some kind of potential attacks that try to make use of vulnerabilities in the statically configured routing protocol.Mobile Ad hoc Network Routing ProtocolsRouting in Mobile Ad hoc Networks faces additional challenges when compared to routing in traditional wired networks with fixed infrastructure. There are several well-known protocols that have been specifically developed to cope with the limitations imposed by Ad hoc networking environments. The problem of routing in such environments is aggravated by limiting factors such as rapidly changing topologies, high power consumption, low bandwidth and high error rates 1. Most of the existing routing protocols follow two different design approaches to confront the inherent characteristics of Ad hoc networks namely Proactive Routing Protocols, Reactive Routing Protocols.Proactive Routing ProtocolsProactive ad hoc routing protocols maintain at all times routing information regarding the connectivity of every node to all other nodes that participate in the network. These protocols are also known as Table-driven Ad hoc Routing Protocols. These protocols allow every node to have a clear and consistent view of the network topology by propagating periodic updates 1. Therefore, all nodes are able to make immediate decisions regarding the forwarding of a specific packet. Two main protocols that fall into the category of proactive routing protocols are Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV) protocol 2 and the Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) protocol 3.Reactive Routing ProtocolsAn alternative approach to the one followed by Proactive Routing Protocols also known as source-initiated on-demand routing, is Reactive Routing Protocols. According to this approach a route is created only when the source node requires one to a specific destination. A route is acquired by the initiation of a route discovery function by the source node. Th e data packets transmitted while a route discovery is in process are buffered and are sent when the path is established. An established route is maintained as long as it is required through a route maintenance procedure. The Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol 4, Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) 5 and the Dynamic Source Routing protocol 6 are examples of this category of protocols.Security issues in Mobile Ad hoc Routing ProtocolsAny routing protocol must encapsulate an essential set of security mechanisms. These are mechanisms that help prevent, detect, and respond to security attacks. We can classify these major security goals into five main categories, which need to be addressed in order to maintain a reliable and secure ad-hoc network environment.ConfidentialityConfidentiality is the protection of any information from being exposed to unintended entities. In ad-hoc networks this is more difficult to achieve because intermediates nodes receive the packets for other recipients, so they can easily eavesdrop the information being routed.AvailabilityAvailability means that a node should maintain its ability to provide all the designed services regardless of the security state of it . This security criterion is challenged mainly during the denial-of-service attacks, in which all the nodes in the network can be the attack target and thus some selfish nodes make some of the network services unavailable, such as the routing protocol or the key management service.AuthenticationAuthentication assures that an entity of concern or the origin of a communication is what it claims to be or from. Without which an attacker would impersonate a node, thus gaining unauthorized access to resource and sensitive information and interfering with operation of other nodes.IntegrityIntegrity guarantees the identity of the messages when they are transmitted. Integrity can be compromised through malicious and accidental altering. A message can be dropped , replayed or revised by an adversary with malicious goal, which is regarded as malicious altering while if the message is lost or its content is changed due to some failures, which may be transmission errors or hardware errors such as hard disk failure, then it is categorized as accidental altering.Non-RepudiationNon-repudiation ensures that sending and receiving parties can never deny their sending or receiving the message.In order to achieve the overall goal of Mobile Ad hoc Network security, above five mechanisms must be implemented in any ad-hoc networks so as to ensure the security of the transmissions along that network.Secure Ad hoc RoutingAs discussed earlier over the past decade, many Ad hoc routing protocols have been proposed in literature. Among them the most widely used are AODV (Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector) 4 and DSR (Dynamic Source Routing) 2 which comes in the category of re-active routing protocols of Ad hoc Networks. All of these protocols have been studied e xtensively. But as there were no security considerations in the original design of these protocols, these protocols remain under threat from the attackers. The main assumption of these protocols was that all participating nodes do so in good faith and without maliciously disrupting the operation of the protocol. However the existence of malicious entities can not be disregarded in the systems especially the environment used for Ad hoc Networks. To overcome the security vulnerabilities in existing routing protocols, many security enhancements in these protocols have been proposed but unfortunately these secure Ad hoc Routing Protocols were either designed for a particular protocol or to address a specific problem operation of the protocol. For example SAODV (Secure Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector Protocol) 7 was proposed to secure AODV (Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector) protocol, Ariadne 10 was proposed to protect DSR (Dynamic Source Routing) protocol, ARAN 7 was proposed to protect the Ad hoc Routing in general while SEAD 8 was proposed to protect the DSDV (Destination Sequence Distance Vector Routing) protocol. The purpose of SAR 9 (Security Aware Routing) was also to protect the Routing in Ad hoc Networks.Problem definitionThus ongoing studies on MANETs pose many challenging research areas including MANETs security. Since MANETs are made up entirely of wireless mobile nodes, they are inherently more susceptible to security threats compared to fixed networks 11. Access to wireless links is virtually impossible to control thus adverse security events such as eavesdropping, spoofing and denial of service attacks are more easily accomplished. These security risks must be reduced to an acceptable level while maintaining an acceptable Quality of Service and network performance. However, in order to work properly, the routing protocols in MANETs need trusted working environments, which are not always available. There may be situations in which the environment may be adversarial. For example some nodes may be selfish, malicious, or compromised by attackers. Most of the work done regarding network security in MANETs focuses on preventing attackers from entering the network through secure key distribution and secure neighbor discovery 10,12. But these schemes become ineffective when the malicious nodes have entered the network, or some nodes in the network have been compromised. Therefore, threats from compromised nodes inside the network are far more dangerous than the attacks from outside the network. Since these attacks are initiated from inside the network by the participating malicious nodes which behave well before they are compromised, it is very hard to detect these attacks.Keeping in view the security threats faced by MANETs we focus on Packet Dropping Attack which is a serious threat to Mobile Ad hoc Networks. Although many research efforts have been put on secure routing protocols but the attacks like packet dropping is not adequatel y addressed. We study the packet dropping attack in which a malicious node intentionally drops the packets they received. Unlike all previous researches which attempt to tolerate Packet Dropping Attacks, our work makes the first effort to detect the malicious activity and then identify the malicious or compromised nodes in the network.Research ObjectiveThe fundamental objective of this research is to discuss the security attacks faced by Mobile Ad hoc Networks specially insider attacks and to review the security in existing routing protocols especially secure routing protocols in MANETs. We particularly focus on packet dropping attack which is a serious threat to Mobile Ad hoc Networks. A novel security enhancement scheme to address packet dropping attack has been proposed.Thesis OrganizationChapter 2 provides a brief introduction of security threats faced by Mobile Ad hoc Networks and secure routing to address these attacks. Chapter 3 discusses about the related work and flaws iden tified in the related work. Chapter 4 presents the possible solutions to address the packet dropping attack in Mobile Ad hoc Networks. Chapter 5 includes the implementation of proposed mechanisms and Results of the proposed mechanism and the thesis is concluded in Chapter 6.Chapter 2Security Threats and Secure Ad hoc Routing ProtocolsIntroductionThis chapter includes the threats and types of attacks faced by Mobile Ad hoc Networks. Secure Ad hoc routing protocols like SAODV 7 (Secure Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector), SAR 16 (Security Aware Routing), and ARAN 9 (Authenticated Routing for Ad hoc Networks) etc and how these protocols are still vulnerable to attacks, are discussed in this chapter.Types of attacks in MANETsThere are numerous kinds of attacks in the mobile ad hoc networks, almost all of which can be classified into two types, External Attacks and Insider Attacks.External AttacksExternal Attacks are those attacks, in which the attacker aims to cause congestion, propagate fake routing information or disturb nodes from providing services. External attacks are similar to the normal attacks in the traditional wired networks such that the adversary is in the proximity but not a trusted node in the network, therefore, this type of attack can be prevented and detected by the security methods such as authentication or firewall, which are relatively conventional security solutions.Internal or Insider AttacksDue to the invasive nature and open network media in the mobile ad hoc network, internal also known as insider attacks are more dangerous than the external attacks because the compromised or malicious nodes are originally the legitimate users of the Ad hoc network, they can easily pass the authentication and get protection from the security mechanisms. As a result, the adversaries can make use of them to gain normal access to the services that should only be available to the authorized users in the network, and they can use the legal identity provided by the compromised nodes to conceal their malicious behaviors. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the internal attacks initiated by the malicious insider nodes when we consider the security issues in the mobile ad hoc networks.Internal or insider nodes when become part of the network can misuse the network in the following waysPacket DroppingA malicious node can attack at its level or at lower levels. Particularly in the context of Packet Dropping Attack, within a trust level, a malicious node or any other node which aims at saving its resources or intentionally launching a attack can successfully drop packets without being noticed and can get services from other nodes for forwarding its own packets.Node IsolationAn internal malicious node can prevent nodes from communicating with any other node.Route DisruptionA malicious node can break down an existing route or prevent a new route from being established.Route InvasionAn inside attacker adds itself between two endpoints of a communication channel.Attacks based on modificationA very simplest way for a malicious node to disturb the operations of an ad-hoc network is to perform an attack based on modification. The only task the malicious or compromised node needs to perform is to announce better routes than the ones presently existing. This kind of attack is based on the modification of the metric value for a route or by altering control message fields.There are various ways to perform this type of attacks some of them are discussed belowAltering the Hop CountThis attack is more specific to the AODV 4 protocol wherein the optimum path is chosen by the hop count metric. A malicious node can disturb the network by announcing the smallest hop count value to reach the compromised node. In general, an attacker would use a value zero to ensure to the smallest hop count.Changing the Route Sequence NumberWhen a node decides the optimum path to take through a network, the node always relies on a metric of values, s uch as hop count delays etc. The smaller that value, the more optimum the path. Hence, a simple way to attack a network is to change this value with a smaller number than the last better value.Altering Routing InformationThis type of attack leads network toward Denial of Service (DoS) attack. For example in a situation where a node M wants to communicate with node S. At node M the routing path in the header would be M-N-O-P-Q-R-S. If N is a compromised node, it can alter this routing detail to M-N-O-P. But since there exists no direct route from O to P, P will drop the packet. Thus, A will never be able to access any service from P. This situation leads the network towards a DoS attack.Impersonation AttacksImpersonation is also known as spoofing. In this type of attack the malicious node hides its IP address or MAC address and uses the addresses of other nodes present in the network. Since current ad-hoc routing protocols like AODV 4 and DSR 6 do not authenticate source IP address. By exploiting this situation a malicious node can launch variety of attacks using spoofing. For example in a situation where an attacker creates loops in the network to isolate a node from the remainder of the network, the attacker needs to spoof the IP address of the node he wants to isolate from the network and then announce new route to the others nodes. By doing this, he can easily modify the network topology as he wants.Fabrication AttacksFabrication attacks can be classified into three main categories. Detection is very difficult in all of these three cases.Routing table poisoningRouting protocols maintain tables which hold information regarding routes of the network. In routing table poisoning attacks the malicious nodes generate and send fabricated signaling traffic, or modify legitimate messages from other nodes, in order to create false entries in the tables of the participating nodes. For example, an attacker can send routing updates that do not correspond to actual chang es in the topology of the ad hoc network. Routing table poisoning attacks can result in selection of non-optimal routes, creation of routing loops and bottlenecks.Route Cache PoisoningThis type of attack falls in the category of passive attacks that can occur especially in DSR 6 due to the promiscuous mode of updating routing tables. This type of situation arises when information stored in routing tables is deleted, altered or injected with false information. A node overhearing any packet may add the routing information contained in that packets header to its own route cache, even if that node is not on the path from source to destination. The vulnerability of this system is that an attacker could easily exploit this method of learning routes and poison route caches by broadcast a message with a spoofed IP address to other nodes. When they receive this message, the nodes would add this new route to their cache and would now communicate using the route to reach the malicious node.Rot e Error Messages fabricationThis attack is very common in AODV 4 and DSR 6, because when nodes move these two protocols use path maintenance to recover the optimum path. The weakness of this architecture is that whenever a node moves, the closest node sends an error message to the other nodes so as to inform them that a route is no longer accessible. If an attacker can cause a DoS attack by spoofing any node and sending error messages to the all other nodes. As a result malicious node can separate any node quite easily.EavesdroppingEavesdropping is another kind of attack that usually happens in the mobile ad hoc networks. The goal of eavesdropping is to obtain some confidential information that should be kept secret during the communication. This information may include the location, public key, private key or even passwords of the nodes. Because such data are very important to the security state of the nodes, they should be kept away from the unauthorized access.Secure Ad hoc Routi ng ProtocolsMany solutions have been proposed for secure routing in ad hoc networks, in order to offer protection against the attacks discussed earlier. These proposed solutions are either completely new stand-alone protocols, or in some cases incorporations of security mechanisms into existing ones (like DSR 6 and AODV 4).In order to analyze the proposed solutions and how they are still vulnerable to attacks we classified them into two main categories based on asymmetric cryptography and symmetric cryptography.Asymmetric Cryptographic SolutionProtocols that use asymmetric cryptography to secure routing in mobile ad hoc networks require the existence of a universally trusted third party. This trusted third party can be either online or offline. The trusted third party issues certificates that bind a nodes public key with a nodes persistent identifier. Authenticated Routing for Ad hoc Networks ARAN 9 falls in this category of secure Ad hoc routing protocols many of the other protocol s presented in other categories that use asymmetric cryptography operate in a similar manner and have similar requirements.Authenticated Routing for Ad hoc Networks ARANThe Authenticated Routing for Ad hoc Networks (ARAN) proposed in 9 is a standalone solution for secure routing in ad hoc networking environments. ARAN use digital certificates and can successfully operate in the managed open scenario where no infrastructure is pre-deployed. The basic mechanism used in ARAN is certification that is achieved through the existence of a trusted certification authority (CA). All nodes are supposed to know their public key from the certification authority and also the public key of server. Prior to entering into the network, each node has to apply for a certificate that is signed by the certificate server. ARAN accomplishes the discovery of routes by a broadcast message from source node which is replied in a unicast manner. This route discovery of the ARAN protocol begins with a node broad casting to its neighbors a route discovery packet (RDP). The RDP includes the certificate of the initiating node, a nonce, a timestamp and the address of the destination node. Furthermore, the initiating node signs the RDP. Each node validates the signature with the certificate, updates its routing table with the neighbor from which it received the RDP, signs it, and forwards it to its neighbors after removing the certificate and the signature of the previous node (but not the initiators signature and certificate). The signature prevents malicious nodes from injecting arbitrary route discovery packets that alter routes or form loops 13. The destination node eventually receives the RDP and replies with a reply packet (REP). The REP contains the address of the source node, the destinations certificate, a nonce, and the associated timestamp. The destination node signs the REP before transmitting it. The REP is forwarded back to the initiating node by a process similar to the one descri bed for the route discovery, except that the REP is unicasted along the reverse path. The source node is able to verify that the destination node sent the REP by checking the nonce and the signature. Figure 2 illustrates the process of route discovery in ARAN. All messages are authenticated at each hop from source to destination as well as on the reverse path. Due to heavy computation involved with the certificates, ARAN is vulnerable to many attacks e.g. DOS attacks. In situation when there are no malicious nodes in the network the load involved in the routing process force the legitimate nodes to drop the packets in order to save their resources.Symmetric Cryptography SolutionsSymmetric cryptographic solutions rely solely on symmetric cryptography to secure the function of routing in wireless ad hoc networks. The mechanisms utilized is hash functions and hash chains. A one-way hash function is a function that takes an input of arbitrary length and returns an output of fixed length 14. As hash functions are especially lightweight when compared to other symmetric and asymmetric cryptographic operations, they have been extensively used in the context of securing ad hoc routing.Secure Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector Protocol (SAODV)The Secure Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector (SAODV) 7 addresses the problem of securing a MANET network. SAODV is an extension of AODV4 routing protocol that can be used to protect the route discovery mechanism by providing security features like authentication, integrity and non-repudiation. It uses digital signatures to authenticate the non-mutable fields of the message, and hash chains to secure the hop count information (the only mutable field in message) in both RREQ and RREP messages. The SAODV scheme is based on the assumption that each node possesses certified public keys of all network nodes . In order to facilitate the transmission of the information required for the security mechanisms, SAODV defines extensions to the stan dard AODV message format. These SAODV extensions consist of the following fields. The hash function field identifies the one-way hash function that is used. The field max hop count is a counter that specifies the maximum number of nodes a packet is allowed to go through. The top hash field is the result of the application of the hash function max hop count times to a randomly generated number, and finally the field hash is this random number.When a node transmits a route request or a route reply AODV packet it sets the max hop count field equal to the time to live (TTL) field from the IP header, generates a random number and sets the hash field equal to it, and applies the hash function specified by the corresponding field max hop count times to the random number, storing the calculated result to the top hash field. Moreover, the node digitally signs all fields of the message, except the hop count field from the AODV header and the hash field from the SAODV extension header. An inte rmediate node that receives a route request or a route reply must verify the integrity of the message and the hop count AODV 4 field. The integrity requirement is accomplished by verifying the digital signature. The hop count field is verified by comparing the result of the application of the hash function max hop count minus hop count times to the hash field with the value of the top hash field. Before the packet is re-broadcasted by the intermediate node the value of the hash field is replaced by the result of the calculation of the one-way hash of the field itself in order to account for the new hop. In SAODV route error messages (RERR) that are generated by nodes that inform their neighbors that they are not going to be able to route messages to specific destinations are secured using digital signatures. A node that generates or forwards a route error message cryptographically signs the whole message, except the destination sequence numbers.Although SAODV provides reasonable sec urity to MANETs routing, but it is still vulnerable to distance fraud attack 15 in which the forwarding node fails to increment the route metric because in SAODV there is no enforcement to do so. Further there is no method to detect the malicious nodes and DOS attacks because in SAODV it is assumed that DOS attacks are restricted to physical layer, but this assumption failed when colluding malicious nodes drop packets during the route discovery process.Security Aware Routing (SAR)SAR 16 (Security Aware Routing) is an extension to existing on demand routing protocols and used where nodes are grouped on the basis of trust level. In SAR each node has different security level which assigns them different trust levels. Two nodes can only communicate with each other if they have equal or greater trust values. If a node has lower security level it simply discards the packet. In case there is no node in the network with the desired level then communication cannot take place or we can say th at, that particular packet cant be forwarded unless its security level is lowered. By exploiting this condition a malicious node can attack at its level or at lower levels. Particularly in the context of Packet Dropping Attack, within a trust level, a malicious node or any other node which aims at saving its resources or intentionally launching a attack can successfully drop packets without being noticed and can get services from other nodes for forwarding its own packets. SAR also fails in the situations of secure routing in general because it only focuses on the situations in which certain groups are assumed to be trustworthy.ConclusionFrom the above discussion, we observe that all Secure Ad hoc routing protocols are still vulnerable to many attacks. Although proposed techniques provide security against external attacks, insider attacks are still an open issue in MANETs.Chapter 3Literature ReviewIntroductionMany solutions have been proposed to prevent selfishness in MANETs. The ma in goal of all the schemes proposed in the literature is to make decisions regarding trustworthy entities and to encourage behavior that leads to increasing trust. In this section we discuss some of the solutions presented in the literature in order to detect the malicious nodes in the network in context of packet dropping attack.Watchdog and PathraterIn 17 Marti el al, proposed a mechanism called as watchdog and pathrater on DSR6 to detect the misbehavior of nodes in MANETs. Nodes in this scheme operate in a promiscuous mode. The watchdog monitors one hop neighbor by overhearing the medium to check whether the next neighbor forwards the packet or not. It also maintains a buffer of recently sent packets. If a data packet remains in the buffer too long, the watchdog declares the next hop neighbor to be misbehaving. Every node that participates in the ad hoc network employs the watchdog functionality in order to verify that its neighbors correctly forward packets. When a node transmit s a packet to the next node in the path, it tries to promiscuously listen if the next node will also transmit it. Furthermore, if there is no link encryption utilized in the network, the listening node can also verify that the next node did not modify the packet before transmitting it . The watchdog of a node maintains copies of recently forwarded packets and compares them with the packet transmissions overheard by the neighboring nodes. Positive comparisons result in the deletion of the buffered packet and the freeing of the related memory. If a node that was supposed to forward a packet fails to do so within a certain timeout period, the watchdog of an overhearing node increments a failure rating for the specific node. This effectively means that every node in the ad hoc network maintains a rating assessing the reliability of every other node that it can overhear packet transmissions from. A node is identified as misbehaving when the failure rating exceeds a certain threshold band width. The source node of the route that contains the offending node is notified by a message send by the identifying watchdog. As the authors of the scheme note, the main problem with this approach is its vulnerability to blackmail attacks. The pathrater selects the path with the highest metric when there are multiple paths for the same destination node. The algorithm followed by the pathrater mechanism initially assigns a rating of 1.0 to itself and 0.5 to each node that it knows through the route discovery function. The nodes that participate on the active paths have their ratings increased by 0.01 at periodic intervals of 200 milliseconds to a maximum rating of 0.8. A rating is decremented by 0.05 when a link breakage is

Health and Safety in Health and Social Care

Health and Safety in Health and soci adequate to(p) C beIntroductionThe employees as s rise up up as the other sections of an agreement obtain to wait various types of guard duty and healthfulness things. The more(prenominal) take chances of asylum and salubriousness issues go forth decrease the confidence and the efficiency of the conk outers and it push out decline the reputation of a accredited governing. It is practicable to apply suitable preventative and health form _or_ system of government for the nerve. It should be done after considering on the whole the relevant facts. Those ciphers gage be understood by consummateing a through observation and study. The beneficial and secure environment should be kept up(p) fro the employees and it is the duty of the circumspection to take requisite steps to implement itLO-01 execution of health and resort legislation the social and health c atomic number 18 condense1.1 The establishment of health and sa fe needs in a make up nameThe health and gumshoe policy of a employment bewilder plays a major mathematical function in the placement. Poor health and sentry go policy of an organization will be a negative loading on the privates, organizations and closingly the society. A great attention should be paying(a) to this subject in a social c are work place where the risks of safety and health issues are precise common. The cause of the issues associate to health and safety corporation be smaller or critical. They post call for in many paths and the effects discount be sufferings, wound or the death, psychological issues, financial issues, reduced productivity and low confidence. This plaza leads to the destruction of the social image of the organization. Sometimes the safety related issue preempt be harming the development and the maintenance the business of that organization. This can be very(prenominal) serious when it is related to a social wellheadbeing ins titute. In certain cases the management has to suffer from severe financial losses. The employees must have the ability to work in a very protective and brotherly environment. The relaxation can arrange great changes in the functioning of the organization. The organization wants to notice the employees in a pricey condition with performing their duties in a very relaxed manner. The well being of the employee is very essential for the employer to set forth the upper limit proceeds (Garcarz, W., 2005). The health and safety measures should be consort to the expectations of the organization and they should not harm the progress of the organization. The application of suitable policy and marinating it can be a very important part of the organization and it will improve the commercial aspect of the organization1.2 concussion of the health and safety needs on the employees and the practitionersThe management should be aware of the situation of the employees. The employees who do n ot perform in accordance to set guideline will reckon lot of problems. The employees should be trained in various types of activities related to the organization, the communication or getting correct idea about certain issues. All the problems of the formation can be subjected and the other can get a clear idea about the issues and it helps the employer to get the maximum service of the employees as well as to minimize the health and safety related issues in the types of the situations and execution of instruments. The adjacent can be apply to keep the communication regarding the health and safety issues in the organization (Fisher, A.,2005). These can be employed to inform the employees as well as it will be very reusable in getting feedback of the employees as well as the customers and the practitioners of the institute.Health and Safety website of the organizationEmployees and modes of communication.Online employee health and safety introduction projectsEmployees learning publicationsSafety manuals and Safe Work ProceduresInstruction manuals and other literature.These sources can be employed according to the requirement as well as the affordability of the organization. The time to come improvements of the policy and other remedies can be potential if those problems are the right way recorded. The management or the other responsible parties can make necessary alterations to the policy. The issues of the organization should be guardedly assessed by the, these reports can be possible with the following methods.Workplace accident inspection reportsAccident and hazard reportHealth and injury and other issues management reportReport of the hurt workers compensationAudits of the health and safety aspect1.3 Monitoring and review of health and safety strategiesThe management is the decision making body of the organization so they are responsible fro each and every decision of the organization. The management or the employer has to perform a great trade un ion movement in maintaining a passable standard in the health and safety condition of the entire organization (Fisher, A., 2005). The health and safety should be applied to each and every individual who is associated with the organization.He has to manage each and every aspect of the organization so that he can pay more attention to the health and well fare of the people of the organization.The management has to plan a risk lay off environment for the employees from various components of the place of work.Providing information, instruction, training and supervision regarding safety and health of employeesThe management or the employer makes the employee aware of the safety and health of the place of work.The management can offer the employees with welfare and other facilities.Preventing risks to other people at the place of work including, for example, visitors, customers, suppliers and sales representativesThe employer should prevent others from falling into troubleThe employer o r the manger must have some remedial plans or solutions for the emergency.LO-02 Impact of health and safety requirements on customers and the work of practitioners2.1 The effect of the risk estimate on the planning of organizational and individual decisionsIt is a fact that the workers who are employed in the health care sector of any commonwealth have to perform a variety of duties. Sometimes they have to perform risky and hard duties. There is the risk of contamination as well as exposing themselves to the danger. So it is a must to understand the situations that they have to face. As many of the workers are performing multitasks in the hospital, they are more endangered to hardships (Moonie. N.,2000). There will be danger in various activities that they perform, much(prenominal) as treatment the patients, cleaning the place transporting and handling the medical instruments. The risks that the employee has to face can be divided into 5 typesBiological risks- This is one of the virtually common situation. The getting exposed to several diseases and getting negative effects or getting the diseases This is one of the prominent issues a management has to answer in the cognitive process of making new changes to the system.Chemical risks. Chemicals which are used to treat cancers and other critical issues can be understood as one of the health and safety issuePhysical risks Ionization and beam are good examples. The employees who are used to assign to handle those machines and chemicals are to be paid. such asErgonomic risks,- the danger of getting injuries and harmed. This can be resulted in mostly handling patients. For example, patient handlingPsychosocial risks this is some other r types of health and safety issue in handling abandon and shift work2.2 Analyzing the priorities of health and safety strategiesThe reporting of the health and safety issues in the organization is a very important part. The relevant incident should be reported to the manage ment in the perfect manner and the feedback can be successfully applied by the management and other policy makers to make more practicable policy in health and safety needs ain an organization. The management can get several goods of these reports to the welfare of the organization he can use the collected knowledge and beat in order to do several activities fro the well fare of the confederacy Employees as well as the community (HSSCU, 2010). As the employer wanted to make the health and safety legislations more effective it should be implemented with congruous planning after the identification of various connected facts. The proposed plans and ideas should be able to match the structure of the organization. It can be done in the following mannerCare planning There are several types and modes of implementing policies for the organization. close of the organizations try to create the policy while offering the maximum profit to the employees. The wellbeing and the satisfaction of the employees are taken into the consideration.Dilemmas and challenges It is not an easy task to introduce an effective safety policy into an organization. There will be lots of dilemmas and also challenges to the management. So the policy should be considered very carefully after taking all the parties into the consideration,Own practice- The implementation of the policies can be vary from organization to organization. So the process of implementation legislation should be done according to the culture and environment of the area.Monitoring and revising. The procedures and updates should be monitored and the observations can be applied to the development of the policy. An organization can get good examples from the previous threats and drawbacksCreating a healthy and safety works environment- a safe and healthy environment can be made for various levels or categories of the employees. The management can use training programs and workshops in order to get more feedback.2.3 Applic ation of the safety and health policy into the place of workThe management should pay a great attention to ensure the employees sense of the health and safety issues. The employees should be aware of the possible dangers that they have to face as well as the customers and practitioners have to face. The process should be started with a basic level of cleanliness. They should be properly educated with proper handling of chemicals and the same keeping the environment in the perfect manner (Garcarz, W.,2005). They should be trained to dispose the garbage in the perfect manner. In that way the management will get the ability to reduce most of the health hazards in the place of work.LO-03 Monitoring and reviewing of health and safety policy3.1 particular of the safety and health strategies in the place of workThere should be facilities to monitor the protective and preventive measures. This step will be useful to assess the practicability of the policy which is introduced to the organi zation. This should be done continuously as it can offer the best idea after certain period. The judicial decision should be checked over and over in order to harness the most suitable version or the policy. The implementation of health and safety policy in a place of work can be very useful to all the relevant parties. The employees can get the benefit of having the freedom to work as they wish and they can perform according to the requirements of the organization without getting into trouble or putting others into trouble. The second fellowship is the management (CIS, 2010). They can maintain the functions of the organization in a very smooth and they will be to gain more profits.3.2 Effectiveness of the safety and health strategiesThe customers and the practitioners are too getting many advantages the place of work will be a very interesting place for the employees as well as the employers. The management puts his attention on the employees, practitioners as well as the visito rs to the organization. When concerning the safety and the well being of the employee, the employer should pay his attention on following. The employer must keep his duty of making a satisfactory working area for the employee. There are several duties of the employer. As there are more positive changes many customers will visit the place and the emerging of the organization will be very successful.3.3 The individual contribution to the implementationThe practitioners will be able to offer their respective service in the best manner it will be a great advantage for the business. The management should try to apply various types of strategies in order to consume the most suitable one. It may take time but the final result will be very important to the organization. The each and every member of the organization should pay his or her contribution in the process of understanding and the implementation of the health and safety policy. They should take part in those training and awareness programs and should be getting themselves well educated. It is a very easy and successful task if the employees and other relevant parties are organize to move forward.4.0 ConclusionThe health and safety plays a prominent role in an organization. It is the duty of the management to implement a suitable policy and it should offer the positive changes to the organization. In a social care organization, more attention must be paid for the health and safety factor as the employees are more vulnerable to various types of diseases as well as accidents. The policy should be changed according to the requirements of the individuals as well as the requirement of the time. This can be done by careful evaluation of the process ( Moonie. N., 2000).. The measurements of the safety and health can be utilized by the management in order to find the negative as well as positive features of the existing policy. It can be updated or changed after careful assessment.5.0 ReferencesAHS. (2010).Strategi c Plan for Workplace Health and Safety.Available www.albertahealthservices.cahttp. Last accessed 10/5/2014CIS. (2010).Assessment. Com. Health and Safety in an Adult brotherly Care Set.AvailableFisher, A. (2005).Health and cordial Care. London Oxpord-Henemann.Garcarz, W (2005).Statutory and Mandatory Training in Health and Social Care A Toolkit for Good Practice. - Radcliff publishing-oxon. -.https//www.cis-assessment.co.uk. Last accessed 10/5/2014.HSSCU,. (2007).Health go Information about workplace health and .Available http//www.hse.gov.uk. Last accessed 9/05/2014.HSSCU,. (2007).Health go Information about workplace health and .Available http//www.hse.gov.uk. Last accessed 10/05/2014.Moonie. N (2000).Advanced Health and Social Care. London Oxford Heinemann.Contribute to the developmence of healthynt and maintena. Available http//www.ocr.org.uk. Last accessed 9/5/2014.http//www.osha.europa.eu. Last accessed 11/5/2014.

Motivation to study a Masters degree

Motivation to charter a master degreeI basically belong to India from w here I received my alternative bringing up, later on I went on pursue my graduation in the commerce reach from Cambridge College, Commercial University, Mumbai. I turn out done my know in Marketing Management from the same University. I assume had bulky amount of flow experience at prominent organizations. I worked as the gross sales Advisor for Marks Spencers for almost two years and locomote on to work at Reebok as the Retail Sales Coordinator for an year. Honestly, I believe, strikeing foreign for an world(prenominal) MBA degree is a greatly refreshing rewarding as any(prenominal)one interested in business of Sales and Marketing. Choosing Bangor University was a choice made on the reason of lot of teaching and research. My educational advisors helped me choose Bangor as a truly internationalistist conditioninal figure for study purposes, which abides an atmosphere conducive for studying and remark equal living place.As a resourceful, creative and solution-oriented individual I found travelling afield for my MBA leave behind serve my challenge taking nature. I have been functionals effectively as a team member with well-known companies and have as well acted as team leader as and when opportunity arose. I believe my eight long years of experience in the field of Sales and Marketing with a brief exposure to working in US in the Macys appargonl department as the Sales Executive. I have likewise travelled to Melbourne, Australia to work as a freelancer merchandiser. attack to UK is not rocket science. After been to US and Australia, UK was an obvious choice to prevent with my professional qualification. I strongly believe this venture volition be a life-changing experience for I result get to learn the European ways of business and result get an opportunity to interact with local anesthetic people and people from around the world.Motivation to study in UK i s also associated with the reputational factors attached with UKs education system. Most of the countries like US and Australia offer generally two years rigorous MBA curriculum, whereas UK allowed me with the one year MBA, which was obviously a better choice if I consider my professional experience and life. I could not commit to a two-year program, thus a one-year program was an added profit for me and one of the strongest reasons to choose UK. While researching about the universities in UK, Bangor University was highly advised by my counsellors back home and I was told it to be one the best educational institutes with a rich history in education.After coming here, I go off say they were quite honorable. With touch on lectures and vibrant life I can call it a amend place to live and study. I view the world with a unit of measurement new perspective and my thinking about business and culture has been bear on profoundly. I am out of my educational comfort zone and am being continuously challenged every day to develop my views and think in new ways. While earlier also I have been in stimulating environments, studying for a postgraduate qualification in UK is an on the whole different endeavour. At Bangor University, I leave alone develop my self-reliance and freedom and will leverage on my previous professional experience and will get along academically and brighten my c areer prospects. MBA at Bangor means enrichment on every level. According to a survey by the Institute for the external Education of Students (IES), when asked about personal growth, 98% educatees agreed that education abroad increased their self-confidence and facilitated maturity and 97% students revealed it had a lifelong jounce on their world view (The London School of Economics and governmental Science/LSE).I am here to try friendship on a greater diversity level. Studying MBA will also alter me to build enduring friendships and developing relationships with people from n on-homogeneous countries. I will remain in contact with them even after my education here is completed. Bangor University will provide me with academic benefits through excellent inclines and lectures, unavailable at my home country. It will enhance the value of my degree by allowing me to study the subjects with much depth. Studying in UK will make me more(prenominal) apprised heathenly and I will be able to appreciate the divergencys in different cultures I have been in. I will be able to understand different people in better ways, thus adequate a part of world that is increasingly becoming more diverse. With this international exposure, I will be able to appraise the different points of view. MBA from Bangor University will definitely be advantageous to my future career as a manager in corporate world. In todays time more and more employers are placing great emphasis on the value of adaptability and flexibility. They also seek people who understand different cultures and can effectively communicate with people. It will prove to be of great help while the employers analyse my compatibility for a job as I will be able to butt such(prenominal) skills to the employers. Interpersonal skills are the single most important connect that the employers consider and I will gain on this front for having twain academic and professional experience abroad.Undeniably I sought the international education and experience because they exhibit my own capability and confidence to throw on with it. Bangor University provides very challenging experience academically, culturally, and socially and is naturally button to provide me an edge over others and help me stand out in the crowd. All the faculty members are internationally oriented and the academic whole tone is rich. Besides these reasons, the embody of tuition fee and cost of living are also important factors considered for choosing Bangor University. The place is rated extremely safe across the UK. thitherfro m Bangor is my choice for both the teaching reasons and non-teaching reasons, bending towards the quality of faculty and cost of living as the most important reasons.Studying in an international setting at Bangor University with students from around the world will surely provide me with the opportunity to develop my communication skills with individuals from a variety of social and cultural backgrounds. The companies I have previously worked for are multinational companies with offices in various countries of world. This will prepare me for an international work. Considering my past ventures in US and Australia, I possess the experience of dealing with various cultures and this will exclusively nurse my value as an individual and an employee.Q. 2. What is your approach to scholarship?Q.3. What issues do you call in in the free radical work?In higher education, the inclusion of crowd work has blend increasingly important, prominently due to greater substance assumed by skill development, lifelong learning and potential of students as future employees. Group work has wide reached consequences if not carried out with congruous execution. It is a widely argued topic in the realm of higher education research literature by the likes of Webb, 1994 and Boud et al., 1999 (Mellor, A. 2009). There are three types of sorting works as identified by Davis (1993). They are formal learning assorts, informal learning groups and study groups. Formal groups are created for accomplishing a situation task which is to be completed within a given stream of time is given to them, such as preparing a report on the organizational behaviour and its elements in an MNC. Informal groups (random groups of individuals) are easily recognizable in a class where students discuss various academic (and non-academic) issues and the study groups are formed to assist the group members during a projects progress. According to Webb, 1994 Gledhill and Smith, 1996, group work is extremel y complex and has effects on the students learning mechanism. in advance formation of a group, it is important to consider issues such as the right size of group, diversity in a group, balancing the load on different members of a group, preparing students to effectively participate in group work. nickname (2004) has argued that the students prefer being assessed individually rather than in groups. Group work can become more disliked by students in our groups if it involves catch assessment. As argued by Maguire and Edmonson (2001) it can lead to issues such as lack of rational judgement and prejudices. The most common issues that I can prevent in the group work are trying to control the group or several(prenominal) members, coercing them to support them in every discussion. Mills (2003) also said that the thing students dislike most are poor group dynamics and constitution clashes. There can be an issue of some students who act as obligate parasites by deriving all the advanta ge without putting any efforts on their own. It discourages other members who actively contribute towards the advantage of group working. Such students have been called as passengers by Bourner et al. (2001) and Parsons (2002). Whereas, Hand (2001) coined the term freeloader for such students. An effective solution to this problem can be keeping the group size as minimum possible so that the kitchen range of free riding can be minimized. Davis (1993) advised the perfect group size to be between 3 to 4 and no more than 6 to 7. Glebhill and Smith (1996) have discussed the issue of age, gender and qualification difference as the factors affecting the group dynamics, for example a more mature person will think quite differently than a younker individual. There can also be a situation where a particular student is undermined by other members, this can seriously thwart his worked up confidence and this sort of rejection can lead to bigger problems such as group conflict (Chang, 1999) . In any group there can be some people who like to be followed and some who just follow without considering the bigger picture. While Thorley and Gregory (1994) believe that groups selected by teachers can be more effective answer to the task or situation, until now there is a natural inclination among the students to form self-selected groups on basis such as friendship, ethnic or cultural proximity. This can become problematic in our case, as there are students from around the world. It is not necessary that every individual has made enough friends. Also, if some members are unable to form a group of their choice, they might feel remote in a group of unknown people. It is not necessary that they will easily adjust in any group. It can not only hamper their participation but can also hurt their emotional well-being (Mellor and Entwistle, 2008).Q.4. How will you attempt to address these?ConclusionI, as an MBA student am looking forward to a rich academic and cultural exposure at Bangor University classrooms. Learning is certainly going to be an res publica of focus while also looking into the areas that need improvement. Developing personality to a better level will definitely be on top of the list. I am also looking forward to working in groups composed of diverse students. During the one year I have at Bangor, I will ensure I develop my assignable skills and enhance my employability through the way of developing my leadership, negotiation abilities, decision making and increasing adaptability by fitting myself in different roles as the course progresses.

The Changing Role Of Women

The ever-changing Role Of Wo cropforceGender disagree custodyt is adept of the huge puzzles of modern club. In end several decades, a signifi pious platitude adjustment has happened in higher teaching method end-to-end a good deal of the industrialized world. For the head start judgment of conviction in history, feminines argon completing their educational studies very much than males are. However, the university major(ip) are wind slightness highly wakeual activity separated. N one and only(a)the slight, the creation of womens studies programs at university direct helps women to reach the grammatical sex satisfactoryity. Also women form to overcome galore(postnominal) restrictions attached with the business issues. De transgress the fact, that in general, women participation in the parcel d board seats has grown, on the average, the rate of growth is kinda slow. barely the wage orifice and the glass detonating device issues are suave exist. fur ther more sexuality inconsistency in family remains an issue, despite the fact that the discrimination has shifted and became less pronounced in the family life.Keywords sex inconsistency in education, college major, womens studies, awaken disparity in business, Fortune d, wage gap, glass ceiling, gender distinction in family, theatres, childrens gender, child shackles.Gender Inequality The Changing Role of Women throughout the Last 30 Years in U.S.Gender inequality is one of the enormous puzzles of contemporary society. Gender inequality refers to the unequal sciences of individuals according to their gender. Males and females are unequal in every possible way of life in unnumerable circs, both immediate and enduring, by both objective aspect and unverifiable practice. Thus, what we can count as gender inequality? Can we line it in methods that let us surely and fairly assess when in that respect is more or less of it?Gender disparity occurs in the every last(pred icate) surface field of operationss of modern world. Education, business and family evoke the enormous amount of controversy in toll of gender disparity. Gender inequality in education has legitimate significant consideration during young years from researchers and educators. There are deuce-ace main points that describe the gender inequality in education prevalence of women who graduate from university compared to frame of men, gender gap in terms of college major and creation of womens studies. Although women overcame many restrictions machine-accessible with the business issues, however the gender gap in the managing positions, wage gap and glass ceiling are placid exist. Moreover, gender disparity within the family remains an issue. Despite the fact, that women and men crusade to share all households, eventually females still doing more than males. Also the put forward disparity appears in the perception of childs gender. In addition, the decision-making that refers to childrens cargo deck afterwards divorcement shows the changing tendency that connected with gender inequality. Gender qualitys are they authentically changing?Gender inequality in educationIn last several decades, a significant alteration has happened in higher education throughout much of the industrialized world. For the first time in history, females are completing their educational studies more than males are. Up until the 1990s, men drop surpassed women in the number of undergraduate and graduate degrees that were completed in US. Since the 1990s, women comport begun to realize greater equality with men and, in many cases, feed exceeded men in regards to their educational exertion. According to a repenny study by the U.S. Congress, females are now prospering as swell as, or pause than, males on many of the indicators of educational movement. Interestingly, the huge gaps in educational achievement among males and females that once prevailed pee-pee been general ly eradicated. In the united States, women shortly earn 67 perpenny of all bachelors degrees. In a recent study McDaniel(2010) found that the demographics were that 61 percent Hispanics, 61 percent indwelling Americans, 54 percent Asians, and 57 percent White females attained college. Changing educational achievement rates for men and women could reinforce gender gaps in salary, the involvement of women in the labor force, and a huge variety of separate(a) labor market issues. The emergence ratio of college-educated women compared to men could change neighborly tendencies in marriage more women delay marriage, divorce or entirely deny marriage. As we can see now, the traditional roles of woman are being altered because of the impact of educational access for women.The tendency for increasing rime of women in higher education should explain non single how females suck caught up to males in graduating from college, but too why the female percentage of the population surpas sed and continues to increase as compared to the male rate for college graduation. Researchers strike looked at sociological and stinting ways that the study of educational achievement has evolved. The significance of women increasing their educational opportunities shows in changes in the labor market, where women desire to have a higher degree than men to have an equal wage, or the goal to develop their special skills and talents. The second determinant of educational achievement is access to resources. The numerous studies confirmed that family-based financial, social, and cultural resources all flap together an main(prenominal) role in educational attainment (McDaniel, 2010).Research has begun to thin out on a females advantage in education in the United States, but it is necessary to emphasize that womens rising tendency of graduation does not mean that the parity in the area of education has finally been reached. University big league are still highly gender separated. I n most cases, women consider field of study which usually bring in less money. The fields that are predominated by men are engineering, law, medicine, natural science and mathematics. The major league that are predominated by women are nursing, social science, teaching, and the humanities. The variety in choices of university majors between males and females is highly striking. In 2007-2009, among recipients of bachelors degrees in the United States, 13% of women majored in education compared to 4% of men, and only 4% of women majored in engineering compared to 14% of men (Evertsson et al., 2009).Unfortunately, in different mens majors women face the problem of gender inequality that connected with the gender perception. The sex differences in choice of major have recently been at the top of disputes on the reasons behind womens under-representation in science and engineering (Evertsson et al., 2009). Females are still considered as being less capable in succeeding in mathematics and natural sciences than males. However, the gender gap in math and science achievement tests is quite insignificant. It is also known that the gender gap has been declining over the past 20 years. atomic number 53 more important change that is connected to gender inequality in education is the creation of womens studies programs at university level. Since the first womens studies program was founded in the 1969-1970 academician year, over 600 schools have established programs (Carell, Page, West, 2010). Undoubtedly, the number of womens studies courses has continued to increase, from 449 in 1984, to 626 in 1994. Colleges and universities now offer about 2,000 womens studies programs (Carell et al., 2010). straightaway, womens studies are offered in many countries, though the extension of its institutionalization varies widely. The researchers offer that the rise in high rate of womens studies has occurred cod to the fact that women were always treated as a minority in the soc iety, whose rights have been violated. So now it is considered as a great chance to learn about women.An appraisal of the disciplinary impact of womens studies will unavoidably be continuous process, as womens studies and associated academic fields further develop. The researchers state that womens studies majors help females to enhance their feminist consciousness and personal self-esteem. whatever researchers also point out that females who take part into womens studies changed their attitude towards the perception of men. Women became more likely to compete with men, despite the existing gender disparity. Its important to expand end develop womens studies in order to displace the uncouth oppression often made regarding women and reduce the gender inequality.Gender disparity in businessOne substantial indicator that a society has achieved gender equality would be the existence of approximately equal number of males and females in executive positions. Despite the fact that in W estern countries females have far more access to management positions than at any new(prenominal) period in history, equal picture is surely not present. Nonetheless, in recent decades the number of women entering the executive, managerial, or professional ranks in the U.S. has change magnitude. However, these females are concentrated at lower levels of management. Across all economic areas, compared to males, females seldom occupy positions conferring major decision-making authority and the ability to affect other(a)s salary or preferment (Duehr Bono, 2006).During the last fifteen years, progression wasnt fast for females in the boards of the largest 500 US firms. The Fortune 500 is the rating of the top 500 United States publically traded companies as measured by their gross incomes and is complied per annum by Fortune magazine. Women held 9.6 per cent of the Fortune boards seats in 1995, though by 2011 women held 19 per cent seats (Van Der Lippe, De Ruijter, Raub, 2011). De spite the fact that in general, women participation in the Fortune 500 board seats has grown, on the average, the rate of increase is quite slow. According to this rate of increase, it may need at least 70 years for women to attain equity with men on Fortune 500 boards. Females actions can encounter with greater examinations and their performance may be more sharply judged as long as women are not well represented on the board.In spite of the progression women have made, gender deliver parity in the workplace is still a problem. In 1990 women earned only 60 cents for every dollar that men earned, implying a gender repair gap of 40 cents (or 40 percent). Although the gender pay gap had stood at roughly that level for decades, the 1995 a striking liaison happened the piercing pay gap shrunk rapidly, and it has continued to shrink to this day ( Dey Hill, 2007). Economists break the gender wage gap using wage regressions-that is, statistical analyses specifying the kinship betwee n wages and productivity- related characteristics for men and women (Hoque, DuBois, Fox- Cardamone, 2010).The survey concludes that any(prenominal) of the raw wage gap is due to varieties in the measured characteristics of males and females. The gender pay gap has become an essential attribute of the U.S. workstation and is so wide blossom that many people believe that it is normal. In most fields college-educated females still earn less than their male co-workers earn, despite the equal working conditions that connected with hours, occupation, parenthood, and other factors that are normally associated with payment system. Women tend to work in the nonprofit and local government areas, where salaries are statistically lower than those in the for-profit and federal government areas (Hoque et al., 2010). The pay parity is particularly a inquire of fairness. Women dont have enough resources to provide themselves and feed their families, when they are paid less compared to men for e qual work. A lot of women experience deficiency is terms of savings as a result of the wage gap, especially when they discommode (Van Der Lippe et al., 2011). The pay inequality is an bulwark for females opportunity to negotiate in the workstation. or so couples tend to prioritize the higher-earning husbands well-being in child care, selection of residence, and other household decisions, because women earn less.The term glass ceiling was used in 1984 by the author of the Corporate Woman column in The fence in Street Journal to describe the process in the work area in USA and other countries. This author reported that an invisible obstacle serves to prevent all but a disproportionately hardly a(prenominal) females from orbit the highest levels of the corporate hierarchy, oblivious of their achievement and merits ( KepHeart Schumacher, 2005). Researchers state that the glass ceiling in corporate America shows a few cracks now, but it is still intemperately in place. The point is that the glass ceiling is not a bank vault for a person based on an individuals failure to cope with a higher-level job. It refers to females as a group who are kept from promoting because they are women. Unfortunately, many women who plan their promotion and expect high work positions may not be promoted not because they cant handle the higher-level job, but because they are women. This refers to a special kind of gender discrimination connected with the working area. many an(prenominal) researchers also report that despite the glass ceiling there is one more hurdle for female leaders today. That is the peculiar wall that exists at the top, in other words when women succeed in the process of the close of strong glass ceiling, then she face another barrier, which is the brick wall between their success and the traditional male hierarchies on the other side. Sometimes as a result, women are choosing to leave the workplace on their own consent, to accede only in family matters, or because they do not want the lodge of the leader positions.Actually, women choose to leave corporate America, not so much because of the open obstacles previously outlined, but because they choose to establish their own businesses. In fact, the foundation of the owning a business is a very prosperous way of avoiding the glass ceiling concepts. Researchers state that 23% of the women interviewed providing disillusionment with the glass ceiling as the incentive for establishing their own businesses, also between 1997 and 2008, the number of women- have companies change magnitude by 19 % nationally, in addition, since 1999 there has been a 190 % increase in construction businesses and a 130 % increase in manufacturing businesses started by women ( Terjesen, Sealy, Sinqh, 2009). Moreover, over 2.46 trillion dollars in commerce are generated from female owned businesses. Females are also owners of 12.6 million privately held and majority owned corporations (Terjesen et al., 2009) . Its weighty that women serve as employers to 19.5 million employees it means that the quarter of all employees work for a woman entrepreneur. These indexes prove the tremendous shift in room of women entrepreneurism as the chosen approach to crack through the glass ceiling. grammatical gender inequality within familyDuring the last decades womens responsibilities within the family have changed a lot. Therefore, gender inequality acquired a new form due to participation of women in the labor force. The researchers claim that womens employment leads to more equal participation regarding households. Presently, females dont have enough free time to participate in a household as before. Thus, gender inequality has shifted and became less pronounced in the family life.Actually, it took a lot of efforts for women to acquire the same status as men have today. There are two aspects that underlie this change. The first aspect is connected to the womens position of power that she reached a s a result of getting free-lance income. Women now have access to money resources, the opportunity to negotiate the assignation of responsibilities and tasks and became an important and reputable participant in the process of the decision making within the household (Minques, 2012). The second one refers to the females limitation of free time that led to the increase of mens participation in child care and other activities connected with the household. However, researchers state that the disproportional share of the burden of household still exists. Females are assigned more labor-intensive and time-consuming chores. Despite the increase of males participation in a household, men tend to be creditworthy for familial obligations that take less time and concentration (Minques,2012). It means that in spite of the fact that men share the households with their spouses, women still guide a lot of time doing their domestic duties.Another factor that shows the gender inequality within th e family is connected to the gender of children. In spite of the statement that the contemporary families are less concerned about gender of their children and tend to have one child of each sex parents still have some preferences. Dahl and Moretti (as sited in Raley and Bianchi, 2006) argues that a number of pieces of evidences suggests that there continues to be a preference for sons, at least among fathers in the United States. For instance, they investigated that couples with two daughters go away to a third birth than those with two sons. The researchers consider this finding as consistent with a preference for boys over girls.Whether or not parents have a preference in terms of gender of their child, they subconsciously site more hopes on boys than girls. Given past gender differences in adul economic achievements, parents may assume that one gender, most often sons, will have higher economic achievement in adulthood (Raley Bianchi, 2006). In spite of the fact that a lot of couples emphasize that girls will be caregivers for them in the future, parents also suppose that their sons will help them financially, while daughters will spend most of the time in their own families doing households and taking care of children. The assurance that girls will devote the life to their own families as caregivers leads to another area in which couples seem to differentiate the involvement in house-work activities by sex ( Raley Bianchi, 2006). Although parents state that they allocate chores equally, girls do more household work overall. Because girls do more feminine households like cooking and cleaning and boys do more masculine chores as household repairs and outdoor works, its obvious that daughters will do more chores, because cleaning and cooking is a kind of everyday activity, what we cant say about repair.It is an obvious fact that during the long time in US gender inequality in terms of custody of children after parents divorce was in favor of women. Howe ver, that tendency has endured a huge buckle of changes 25 years ago. National estimates in the 1970s and 80s indicated that women had sole custody of the children approximately 85% of the time, and men retained sole custody 10% of the time, with the remaining 5% spread over a variety of custody arrangements, including grandparent, split or joint custody ( Kalmijn, 2007). The rights of males in this issue has change magnitude and changed for the better over time. Affected by fathers complaints of gender discrimination in custody decisions, constitutional concerns for parity protection, the feminist movement, and the entry of large numbers of females into the labor market, most states had replaced the standards that were based on the gender.Women lost one of their few benefits that refer to gender inequality. The researchers state that the fact that women became more independent and burning about their career played not a good role for child custody decision-making. In 1980, 2.9 m illion mothers got sole custody of their children by 1995 that situation had almost tripled. Nevertheless, by 2007 the number of fathers with sole custody increased by 4 times, while the number of mothers who got the sole custody reduced (DeGermo, Patras, Eap, 2008). Although the number of mothers who have the sole custody substantially prevails, the number of fathers who get the sole custody of children unceasingly grows.Despite all the changes and reforms, gender inequality still exists. Women are trying to avoid many obstacles that they face on their way to success and power. Unfortunately, women need to prove their capabilities in all areas much harder than men do and it does not matter if it is an education, or business, or family scope. Today women still face the gender inequality in terms of leadership positions, pay gap and glass ceiling. They also are unequal with men in area of different college majors and family responsibilities. Nevertheless, due to tremendous efforts, the gender disparity gave a crack in point of womens attendance to college and organic law of womens studies programs. It is well known that the modernity is a time of change and it is obvious that change in gender inequality will continue. But the promontory is how much time and efforts it will take and will we be quenched with the results that we will finally receive?